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When delegates from twelve states
gathered in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, many of
them feared that the quarrels between the states, the
sudden rash of internal rebellions, the continuing presence
of enemies on our national borders, the embarrassing debts
owed to foreign nations and to our own citizens, and the
vulnerability of our merchant marine on the oceans all
spelled doom for the young republic. The new frame of
government that these political leaders produced was thus
born in crisis— but it proved capable of surviving
that crisis and many others to come in the nation's future.
In this issue of History Now, our scholars
and teachers explore the philosophical and political
traditions and innovations that defined the Constitution
and those that prompted opposition to it by the Antifederalists.
They look at the social context in which the constitution
was created—and discuss the groups that the delegates
failed to grant the same equality and freedom that they
cherished for themselves. The result is a rich, in-depth
examination of the Constitution— its strengths
and its flaws. These essays remind us and our students
that the endurance of the Constitution is a tribute
to the framers’ willingness to see it change as
American society itself changed, to adjust to the needs
of future generations that these men, wise though they
were, could not foresee.
Constitutional scholar Linda R. Monk’s “Why
We the People? Citizens as Agents of Constitutional
Change” introduces us to one of the most radical
ideas embodied in the Constitution: that ultimate sovereignty
lies with the citizens themselves. It was this principle,
Monk reminds us, that prompted the demand, during the
ratification debates, that a bill of rights be added
to the Constitution. She shows us that later generations
of propertyless men, white women, African Americans,
and Indians would rely on the promise of these rights
as they fought for inclusion into the ranks of “we
the people.” In his essay “James Madison
and the Constitution,” Professor Jack Rakove probes
the mind of James Madison -- the delegate known as the
"architect of the Constitution," explores
the weaknesses of the Articles government, and develops
arguments for a stronger union in a memorandum entitled
Vices of the Political System of the United States.
Madison’s brilliant analysis of the problems facing
the new republic formed the basis for the plan he would
bring to the constitutional convention in 1787. In “The
Antifederalists: The Other Founders of the American
Constitutional Tradition?” Professor Saul Cornell
helps us understand that the dissenting voices of the
Antifederalists are a critical part of our political
heritage. The issues these men raised—in the ratifying
conventions and in the press—were serious ones:
the omission of a bill of rights, the centralizing tendencies
of the new government, and what they feared was its
aristocratic character. These concerns brought together
rich men and poor, northerners and southerners, farmers
and planters and artisans. The glue that bound them
together was a desire to protect individual rights and
local interests. In “Ordinary Americans and the
Constitution,” Professor Gary Nash explores the
views of African Americans, artisans, and small farmers—groups
who opposed the Constitution because it denied them
rights or ignored their interests. As Nash shows us,
these groups would continue to stand as critics of the
Constitution throughout the nineteenth century and into
the twentieth century as long as it failed to recognize
their equality. Professor James O. Horton continues
this theme in his essay “Race and The American
Constitution: A Struggle Toward National Ideals.”
Horton traces the long and difficult struggle by African
Americans, free and enslaved, to gain recognition as
full citizens of the United States. Their struggle tested
the ideals of the founding generation—and exposed
the racial assumptions and prejudices not only of the
framers but of later generations of Americans. Finally,
Theodore Crackel, editor of the George Washington Papers,
gives us a thoughtful look at one of our most cherished
heroes, the Commander in Chief of the Continental Army,
the presiding officer at the constitutional convention,
and the first president of the United States. Crackel
shows us how Washington’s experiences as Commander
in Chief gave him a nationalist rather than a provincial
perspective. He also shows us how important Washington’s
support for the new constitution proved to be. And,
perhaps most importantly, he shows us the judiciousness
and care with which the first president administered
his office, always recognizing that his actions would
set a precedent for executives to come.
As Constitution Day projects and lessons begin across
the country, these essays should prove an excellent
starting point for students and teachers alike. In addition,
our archivist Mary-Jo Kline provides a wealth of source
materials for further study and our master teachers
provide lesson plans for classrooms at high school,
middle and elementary school levels, and our interactive
feature for this issue is a quiz on Constitutional trivia.
We are also proud to present a new feature in this
issue of History Now: four book reviews by two classroom
teachers, focusing on two scholarly books for your own
background reading and two books that our reviewers
feel might be useful in the classroom itself.
As always, we welcome your comments and suggestions—and
hope you will share your ideas for lessons or projects
with your peers across the country through the pages
of History Now.
Carol Berkin
Editor, History Now
Carol Berkin is Presidential Distinguished Professor
of History at Baruch College and The Graduate Center,
City University of New York. She is the author of several
books including Jonathan Sewall: Odyssey of an American
Conservative, First Generations: Women in Colonial America,
A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution,
and Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle
for America's Independence.
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